Despite developers' goal of delivering a product that works entirely as intended, virtually all software and hardware contains bugs. If a bug creates a security risk, it is called a … See more

There is little evidence about the effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of different cyberattack prevention measures. Although estimating the risk of an attack is not straightforward, … See more

Assessment
A commonly used scale for assessing the severity of vulnerabilities is the open-source specification See more

• Ablon, Lillian; Bogart, Andy (2017). Zero Days, Thousands of Nights: The Life and Times of Zero-Day Vulnerabilities and Their Exploits (PDF). Rand Corporation. ISBN See more

Hardware
Deliberate security bugs can be introduced during or after manufacturing and cause the integrated circuit not to behave as expected under certain specific circumstances. Testing for security bugs in hardware is quite … See more

The vulnerability lifecycle begins when vulnerabilities are introduced into hardware or software. Detection of vulnerabilities can be by the software vendor, or by a third party. In the latter case, it is considered most ethical to immediately … See more

The software vendor is usually not legally liable for the cost if a vulnerability is used in an attack, which creates an incentive to make cheaper but less secure software. Some companies … See more