Despite developers' goal of delivering a product that works entirely as intended, virtually all software and hardware contains bugs. If a … See more

Hardware
Deliberate security bugs can be introduced during or after manufacturing and cause the integrated circuit not to behave as expected under … See more

The vulnerability lifecycle begins when vulnerabilities are introduced into hardware or software. Detection of vulnerabilities can be by the software vendor, or by a third party. In the latter case, it is considered most ethical to immediately … See more

The software vendor is usually not legally liable for the cost if a vulnerability is used in an attack, which creates an incentive to make cheaper but … See more

There is little evidence about the effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of different cyberattack prevention measures. Although estimating the risk of an attack is not straightforward, … See more

Assessment
A commonly used scale for assessing the severity of vulnerabilities is the open-source specification Common Vulnerability Scoring System (CVSS). … See more

• Ablon, Lillian; Bogart, Andy (2017). Zero Days, Thousands of Nights: The Life and Times of Zero-Day Vulnerabilities and Their Exploits (PDF). Rand Corporation. ISBN See more